The hard lives of trees in African savanna—Even without elephants

The ongoing loss of large trees and densification shrubs are two prevalent processes that take place in African savannas, with profound consequences for their structure function. We evaluated herbivore impacts on savanna woody communities using a long-term exclosure experiment the Kruger National Park, South Africa, three treatments: exclusion mammals only (i.e. elephant giraffe), all herbivores larger than hare, areas open to herbivores. asked questions: (1) How did variable affect density across catena riparian, sodic crest vegetation)? (2) Did result unique species composition? (3) higher proportion palatable species? After 17 years, we found mainly affected heights densities existing species, rather leading turnover assemblages. Although individuals increased full (350 ha?1), change was more moderate expected. By contrast, mixed mega-and meso-herbivores decreased number (decreases 780 ha?1) via variety physical impacts. Meso-herbivores alone, other hand, had less impact individual no change), but limited average height growth canopy dimensions certain habitat types. Where elephants present, they effective at reducing stems point counteracting encroachment, same time actively preventing persistence (>5 m) as well from recruiting size classes. However, lack massive recruitment cover increases exclusion, especially preferred suggests factors beyond elephants, such dispersal limitation, seed predation, drought, also acting upon species.